Witnesses were often interrupted in standard interviews so cognitive interviews were introduced by Geiselman et al (1985). They consisted of...
CONTEXT REINSTATEMENT (CR) - Mentally reinstate the context of the target event. Recall the scene, the weather, what you were thinking and feeling at the time, the preceding events etc.
REPORT EVERYTHING (RE) - Report every detail you can recall even if it seems trivial.
RECALL FROM CHANGED PERSPECTIVE (CP) - Try to describe the episode as it would have been seen from different viewpoints.
RECALL IN REVERSE ORDER (RO) - Report the episode in several different temporal orders moving backward and forwards in time.
Fisher et al (1987) introduced the 'enhanced cognitive interview' suggesting a few added features like...
• Minimised distractions.
• Listening to witness.
• Open-ended questions.
• Pause after response.
• Avoid interruption.
• Encourage use of imagery.
• Adapt language to suit witness.
• Avoid judgement.
Evaluation
+ More effective than standard interview.
+ Improved recall for both high and low arousal in experimental setting.
+ Applied to real-world settings.
+ Stresses importance of reporting every detail.
+ More information.
+ Produces forensically rich information.
+ Increase of 34% in correct information.
- Time delay.
- Hard to recall information that happened a long time ago.
- Provision of cues.
- Unhelpful in a line-up.
- Negative stereotypes.
- Time constraints.
- Demands on interviewer.
- Interviewer training.
Thursday, 11 December 2014
Cognitive - Eyewitness Testimony - Age
The Own Age Bias: People are more likely to correctly identify people of their own age.
Parker & Carranza (1989)
Procedure
- Compared primary school children and college students.
- Looked at identifying a target individual following a mock crime.
Findings
- Child witnesses were more likely to chose someone.
- Child witnesses were less accurate.
Memon et al (2003)
Procedure
- Studied young (16-33), older (60-82) eyewitness accuracy.
Findings
- When the delay between an incident and its identification was short there was no difference in the accuracy of the two age groups.
- 1 week later, younger witnesses were more accurate.
Yarmey (1993)
Procedure
- Stopped 651 adults in public places and asked them to recall physical characteristics of a woman who they had spoken to 2 minutes earlier.
Findings
- Young (18-29) and middle-aged (30-44) were more confident in recall.
- No significant differences in accuracy of recall that could be attributed to the age group of the witness.
Anastasi and Rhodes (2006)
Procedure
- 3 age groups, (18-25, 35-45, 55-78) shown 24 photos.
- Rated for attractiveness.
- Filler activity.
- 48 photos presented - 24 had been there previously.
Findings
- Young and middle-aged participants were significantly more accurate than older participants.
- All age groups were good at identifying their own age group.
Procedure
- Compared primary school children and college students.
- Looked at identifying a target individual following a mock crime.
Findings
- Child witnesses were more likely to chose someone.
- Child witnesses were less accurate.
-----------------------------------
Procedure
- Studied young (16-33), older (60-82) eyewitness accuracy.
Findings
- When the delay between an incident and its identification was short there was no difference in the accuracy of the two age groups.
- 1 week later, younger witnesses were more accurate.
----------------------------------
Procedure
- Stopped 651 adults in public places and asked them to recall physical characteristics of a woman who they had spoken to 2 minutes earlier.
Findings
- Young (18-29) and middle-aged (30-44) were more confident in recall.
- No significant differences in accuracy of recall that could be attributed to the age group of the witness.
----------------------------------
Anastasi and Rhodes (2006)
Procedure
- 3 age groups, (18-25, 35-45, 55-78) shown 24 photos.
- Rated for attractiveness.
- Filler activity.
- 48 photos presented - 24 had been there previously.
Findings
- Young and middle-aged participants were significantly more accurate than older participants.
- All age groups were good at identifying their own age group.
Cognitive - Eyewitness Testimony - Anxiety
Weapon Focus effect - Arousal may focus the witness on more central details of the attack (e.g. the weapon) than the more peripheral details.
Johnson and Scott (1976)
Procedure
- Used two conditions - one with a weapon and one without.
- Participants heard a discussion in another room.
- Condition 1: Man emerged with a pen and grease on his hands.
Condition 2: Man emerged with a knife covered in blood.
- Participants asked to identify man from 50 photos.
Findings
- Participants in condition 1 were 49% accurate.
- Participants in condition 2 were 33% accurate.
Evaluation
+ Field experiment - easily replicated - high reliability.
+ Independent groups - no order effects.
- Era dependent and outdated.
- Protection from harm - participants could be distressed.
- High ecological validity - reflects natural behaviour.
- Deception.
- Can't establish cause and effect.
- Independent groups - participant variables.
Johnson and Scott (1976)
Procedure
- Used two conditions - one with a weapon and one without.
- Participants heard a discussion in another room.
- Condition 1: Man emerged with a pen and grease on his hands.
Condition 2: Man emerged with a knife covered in blood.
- Participants asked to identify man from 50 photos.
Findings
- Participants in condition 1 were 49% accurate.
- Participants in condition 2 were 33% accurate.
Evaluation
+ Field experiment - easily replicated - high reliability.
+ Independent groups - no order effects.
- Era dependent and outdated.
- Protection from harm - participants could be distressed.
- High ecological validity - reflects natural behaviour.
- Deception.
- Can't establish cause and effect.
- Independent groups - participant variables.
-----------------------------------------
Christianson and Hubinette (1993)
Procedure
- Questioned 110 witnesses who had seen 22 genuine bank robberies.
- Some were onlookers, some employees.
Findings
- Victims more accurate in recall and remembered more details about robbers than bystanders even after 15 months later.
- People (especially victims) are good at remembering highly stressful events if they occur in real life rather than in the artificial surroundings of the laboratory.
Evaluation
+ Natural experiment - reflects real behaviour - high ecological and external validity.
- Social desirability bias.
- Low internal validity.
- Can't be replicated - low reliability.
-----------------------------------------
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
Procedure
- Interviewed 13 witnesses to real-life shooting.
Findings
- Witnesses gave accurate accounts months later.
- Those closest to event recalled more detail.
- Most distressed were the most accurate 5 months later.
- Heightened arousal enhanced accuracy
-----------------------------------------
Defenbacher et al (2004)
Procedure
- Meta-analysis of 18 studies looking at anxiety on accuracy of recall.
Findings
- High levels of stress negatively impacted on the accuracy of eyewitness memory. However, some studies found it may enhance accuracy.
- Yerkes-Dodosn law established - curvilinear relationship between arousal and accuracy.
Cognitive - Eye Witness Testimony - Misleading Information
Eyewitness testimony refers to the use of eyewitnesses to give evidence in court concerning the identity of someone who has committed a crime.
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Experiment 1
Procedure
- 45 students shown 7 films of traffic accidents.
- Students were given questionnaires after films asking them to describe the accident and answer questions.
- One critical question where the verb was changed between groups. Verbs uses were: hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed.
- The question asked them to estimate the speed the cars were travelling at.
Findings
- The group given the word 'smashed' had the highest speed estimate.
- 'Contacted' had the lowest speed estimate.
Experiment 2
Procedure
- New participants divided into 3 groups and shown a film of a car accident.
- Group 1 given smashed. Group 2 given hit. Group 3 had no speed question.
- Participants were asked to return 1 week later and answer questions about accident.
- Were asked if they saw any broken glass despite there being none in the video.
Findings
- 'Smashed' group more likely to think there was broken glass.
Evaluation
+ Extraneous variables are controlled because it is a lab experiment.
+ Independent groups - no order effects.
+ Easily replicated - high reliability.
+ Cause and effect can be established.
+ Research has led to implications and eyewitness testimonies now can't stand alone in court.
- Lacks mundane realism - low ecological validity.
- Independent groups - participant variables.
- Investigator bias.
- Demand characteristics.
- Questionnaires cause social desirability bias.
- Could be deceptive.
- Small sample size - only students - low population validity.
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Experiment 1
Procedure
- 45 students shown 7 films of traffic accidents.
- Students were given questionnaires after films asking them to describe the accident and answer questions.
- One critical question where the verb was changed between groups. Verbs uses were: hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed.
- The question asked them to estimate the speed the cars were travelling at.
Findings
- The group given the word 'smashed' had the highest speed estimate.
- 'Contacted' had the lowest speed estimate.
Experiment 2
Procedure
- New participants divided into 3 groups and shown a film of a car accident.
- Group 1 given smashed. Group 2 given hit. Group 3 had no speed question.
- Participants were asked to return 1 week later and answer questions about accident.
- Were asked if they saw any broken glass despite there being none in the video.
Findings
- 'Smashed' group more likely to think there was broken glass.
Evaluation
+ Extraneous variables are controlled because it is a lab experiment.
+ Independent groups - no order effects.
+ Easily replicated - high reliability.
+ Cause and effect can be established.
+ Research has led to implications and eyewitness testimonies now can't stand alone in court.
- Lacks mundane realism - low ecological validity.
- Independent groups - participant variables.
- Investigator bias.
- Demand characteristics.
- Questionnaires cause social desirability bias.
- Could be deceptive.
- Small sample size - only students - low population validity.
----------------------------------
Loftus (1975)
Procedure
- Showed 150 participants a film of a car accident and divided into 2 groups.
- Each group asked 10 questions.
• Group 1: Asked questions consistent with the film.
• Group 2: Asked same questions except for one: "How fast was the car going when it passed the barn?" - there was no barn in the video.
- After 1 week, participants were asked another 10 questions and both groups asked if they saw a barn.
Findings
• 2.7% of Group 1 gave incorrect answer.
• 17.3% of Group 2 gave incorrect answer.
Cognitive - Working Model Studies
Baddeley et al (1975)
Procedure
- Participants prevented from rehearsing words sub vocally by being asked to repeat an irrelevant sound.
Findings
- Word-length effect disappeared (short words were not recalled any better than long words).
- Articulatory suppression fills phonological loop and removes advantage of rehearsal.
- Some words recalled - central executive possibly takes over the recall task.
Supports the existence of the phonological loop.
Procedure
- Participants prevented from rehearsing words sub vocally by being asked to repeat an irrelevant sound.
Findings
- Word-length effect disappeared (short words were not recalled any better than long words).
- Articulatory suppression fills phonological loop and removes advantage of rehearsal.
- Some words recalled - central executive possibly takes over the recall task.
Supports the existence of the phonological loop.
---------------------------------------
Baddeley et al (1973)
Procedure
- Gave participants a tracking task that involved holding a pointer in contact with a moving spot.
- Simultaneously, participants had to perform an imagery task.
- Asked to imagine block capital letter and asked to identify each angle as a yes if it included the top line of the letter and no if it didn't.
Findings
- Participants found it very difficult to track spot of light and carry out tracking task as well as a verbal task.
The tasks were competing for the limited resources of the visuo-spatial-sketchpad, whereas tracking task and verbal task made use of separate components of visuo-spatial-sketchpad and phonological loop.
-----------------------------------------
KF - Case Study
Findings
- Showed that STM works independently of LTM.
- KF had no problems with LT learning but had issues with immediate memory.
- ST forgetting of auditory information was greater than visual stimuli and auditory problems were limited in respect of verbal material but not meaningful sound.
- Brain damage was restricted to phonological loop.
Cognitive - The Working Model
Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Working Memory Model
This model is all about the short-term memory.
Key points:
• A number of different stores.
• 2 visual tasks simultaneously = hard.
• 1 visual and 1 auditory task simultaneously = easy.
There is 1 'Boss' and 3 'Slaves.
'Boss' - Central Executive
• Has overall control.
• Starts rehearsal.
• Switches attention.
• Retrieves information from LTM.
'Slave 1' - The Phonological Loop -> Further divided into...
1) The Phonological Store:
• 'Inner ear'.
• Limited capacity.
• Holds verbal information in a speech based form.
AND
2) The Articulatory Process:
• 'Inner voice'.
• Used for words heard or seen.
• Subvocal repetition.
'Slave 2' - The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad -> Also your 'inner eye'
- Has a limited capacity.
- Temporary storage system.
- Holds visual and/or spatial information.
- Used when planning a spatial task.
-> Further separated into...
1) The Visual Cache - a passive visual store
AND
2) The Inner-Scribe - A rehearsal mechanism.
'Slave 3' - The Episodic Buffer
- A store for tasks that require visual and auditory elements.
- Extra storage system - integrates information from everywhere.
Evaluation
+ Explains ability to carry out tasks like arithmetic by storing briefly while processing information.
+ Is influential and still being developed and expanded.
+ More plausible than MSM because it explains STM.
+ Must be at least two store systems in STM according to KF.
+ Physiological evidence in brain scans.
+ Attempts to explain how memory functions.
+ Doesn't over-emphasise rehearsal but acknowledges it as an option for transferring data.
- WM only talks about STM and is not a comprehensive model of memory.
- Not much is known about the role of the central executive.
- WM doesn't explain changes in processing ability that occurs as a result of practice or time.
Cognitive - Multi-Store Model Studies
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)
Procedure
- Presented participants with a list of 20 words, one at a time and then asked them to recall any words remembered.
Findings
- Participants remembered more words from the beginning of the list (primacy effect) and words at the end of the list (recency effect).
Evaluation
+ Supports MSM, first words are best rehearsed and transferred to LTM. Last words remain in STM.
- Participant variables.
Peterson and Peterson
Procedure
- 24 students in experiment.
- Given consonant syllable (e.g. WTG) and a three-digit number (e.g. 303).
- Counted down in 3s from the number.
- Asked to recall the letters.
- Given two practice trials followed by eight trials. Retention interval was different at each trial.
Findings
- Participants remembered 90% of the words when there was a 3-second interval.
- Remembered 2% when there was an 18-second interval.
- When rehearsal is prevented, STM lasts about 20 seconds at most.
Evaluation
+ Supports the MSM - rehearsal needed to transfer information from STM to LTM.
+ Lots of trials used - gives more accurate data.
+ Backs up theory that STM is very short.
- Very small sample size - low population validity.
- Number of trials create order effects making results less accurate.
Bahrick et al (1975)
Procedure
- Asked people of various ages to put names to faces from high school yearbooks.
Findings
- People were, on average, 70% accurate.
Evaluation
+ Supports MSM because memory was encoded semantically (the faces) to LTM.
+ Asked people of various ages - high population validity.
- Refutes MSM - suggests rehearsal was not needed for the names to be remembered.
Conrad (1964)
Procedure
- Showed participants a random sequence of six consonants under two conditions.
- One condition used acoustically similar consonants.
- Second condition used acoustically different consonants.
- Participants had to write down letters in order.
Findings
- Participants made frequent errors.
- Found it more difficult to remember similar sounding letters in order.
Evaluation
+ Supports MSM - visual material encoded acoustically in STM.
- Order effects.
- Participant variables.
Milner (1957) - Case Study
Events
• Had his hippocampus removed from both sides of the brain to reduce epilepsy.
• Could not form long-term memories.
Evaluation
+ Biological evidence of the MSM.
+ Qualitative data - rich in detail.
- Can't be replicated - low reliability.
- Low ecological validity.
Procedure
- Presented participants with a list of 20 words, one at a time and then asked them to recall any words remembered.
Findings
- Participants remembered more words from the beginning of the list (primacy effect) and words at the end of the list (recency effect).
Evaluation
+ Supports MSM, first words are best rehearsed and transferred to LTM. Last words remain in STM.
- Participant variables.
-------------------------------------------------
Peterson and Peterson
Procedure
- 24 students in experiment.
- Given consonant syllable (e.g. WTG) and a three-digit number (e.g. 303).
- Counted down in 3s from the number.
- Asked to recall the letters.
- Given two practice trials followed by eight trials. Retention interval was different at each trial.
Findings
- Participants remembered 90% of the words when there was a 3-second interval.
- Remembered 2% when there was an 18-second interval.
- When rehearsal is prevented, STM lasts about 20 seconds at most.
Evaluation
+ Supports the MSM - rehearsal needed to transfer information from STM to LTM.
+ Lots of trials used - gives more accurate data.
+ Backs up theory that STM is very short.
- Very small sample size - low population validity.
- Number of trials create order effects making results less accurate.
----------------------------------------------
Bahrick et al (1975)
Procedure
- Asked people of various ages to put names to faces from high school yearbooks.
Findings
- People were, on average, 70% accurate.
Evaluation
+ Supports MSM because memory was encoded semantically (the faces) to LTM.
+ Asked people of various ages - high population validity.
- Refutes MSM - suggests rehearsal was not needed for the names to be remembered.
-------------------------------------------------
Conrad (1964)
Procedure
- Showed participants a random sequence of six consonants under two conditions.
- One condition used acoustically similar consonants.
- Second condition used acoustically different consonants.
- Participants had to write down letters in order.
Findings
- Participants made frequent errors.
- Found it more difficult to remember similar sounding letters in order.
Evaluation
+ Supports MSM - visual material encoded acoustically in STM.
- Order effects.
- Participant variables.
--------------------------------------------
Milner (1957) - Case Study
Events
• Had his hippocampus removed from both sides of the brain to reduce epilepsy.
• Could not form long-term memories.
Evaluation
+ Biological evidence of the MSM.
+ Qualitative data - rich in detail.
- Can't be replicated - low reliability.
- Low ecological validity.
Cognitive - The Multi-Store Model
Atkinson and Shiffrin's Multi-Store Model
Short-Term Memory (STM)
• Capacity of 7 ± 2 items (Miller)
• Duration of 30 seconds (Peterson and Peterson)
• Encodes acoustically (Conrad)
Information can be forgotten if...
- There is too much information
- Information is displaced
- Information is rehearsed and transferred to LTM
- Information been in store longer than 30 seconds
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
• Capacity is unlimited
• Duration is 2 hours to 100 years (Bahrick et al)
• Encodes semantically (Baddeley)
Information can be forgotten due to...
- Interference
- Decay
Evaluation
+ The notion that there are at least two qualitatively different kinds of memory storage is supported by empirical evidence.
+ Provides a systematic account of structures and processes involved in memory.
+ Evidence to support rehearsal.
+ Glanzer and Cunitz support the different stores.
+ Peterson and Peterson supports rehearsal for conversion of storages.
+ Conrad supports information encoded acoustically.
- Model assumes STM and LTM are unitary stores.
- Cannot account for individuals remembering more than others.
- Information seen as flowing in one direction meaning there is no interaction between stores.
- Model is too simplistic.
- Over-emphasises capacity.
- Bahrick refutes model, suggesting rehearsal is not needed.
Tuesday, 9 December 2014
Developmental - Daycare Studies
High Quality Daycare:
- Caregiver/children ratio
- Key worker
- Appropriate staff training
- Low staff turn over
- Good facilities
Campbell
Procedure
• Swedish children attended childcare from 18 months to 3 1/2 years.
• 9 went to family based childcare. 30 in nursery. 9 switched from family based to nursery during study.
• Compared to group of children who applied to daycare.
• Observation at 18 months in their own homes playing with peers. Used Caldwells HOME inventory method.
• Visited in daycare and observed for 30 mins. Assessments at 2 1/2 and 3 1/2.
• Social competence assessed at 6 1/2 - care provider described child's social skills.
• Teachers gave perception of child's social behaviour at 8 1/2.
• Participants visited at home at 15. Completed self report of social development.
Findings
• Long days in day care under 3 1/2 = less socially competent.
• More days but shorter days = more socially competent.
• Social competence stable between 3 1/2 and 15.
• Good quality daycare up to 3 1/2 is important for social development.
Evaluation
+ Triangulation - range of measurements - more detailed information.
+ Assessed before daycare - provided clear baseline.
+ Longitudinal - changes in behaviour over time.
- Longitudinal - attrition.
- Sweden - culture bias and low population validity.
- Self-report - social desirability bias.
- Sensitive nature of research - ethical issues cause distress to participants.
Peer Relations
Social Development
• 1000 children, US government funded
Evaluation
+ Focuses on quality and quantity.
- Outdated.
- Correlational.
Peer Relations
Social Development
- Caregiver/children ratio
- Key worker
- Appropriate staff training
- Low staff turn over
- Good facilities
Campbell
Procedure
• Swedish children attended childcare from 18 months to 3 1/2 years.
• 9 went to family based childcare. 30 in nursery. 9 switched from family based to nursery during study.
• Compared to group of children who applied to daycare.
• Observation at 18 months in their own homes playing with peers. Used Caldwells HOME inventory method.
• Visited in daycare and observed for 30 mins. Assessments at 2 1/2 and 3 1/2.
• Social competence assessed at 6 1/2 - care provider described child's social skills.
• Teachers gave perception of child's social behaviour at 8 1/2.
• Participants visited at home at 15. Completed self report of social development.
Findings
• Long days in day care under 3 1/2 = less socially competent.
• More days but shorter days = more socially competent.
• Social competence stable between 3 1/2 and 15.
• Good quality daycare up to 3 1/2 is important for social development.
Evaluation
+ Triangulation - range of measurements - more detailed information.
+ Assessed before daycare - provided clear baseline.
+ Longitudinal - changes in behaviour over time.
- Longitudinal - attrition.
- Sweden - culture bias and low population validity.
- Self-report - social desirability bias.
- Sensitive nature of research - ethical issues cause distress to participants.
Peer Relations
Social Development
-----------------------------------------
NICHD
Procedure
• 1000 children, US government funded
• 4 1/2 year old children in kindergarten, data recorded on social competence and problem behaviours.
Findings
• Group care = more adverse effects compared to one-to-one care.
• More time spent in nursery = more aggressive and disobedient.
Evaluation
+ Majority were in the normal range.
- Could be other reasons for aggression, e.g. temperament, disposition etc...
- Culture bias - US. Low population validity.
Aggression
Social Development
Findings
• Group care = more adverse effects compared to one-to-one care.
• More time spent in nursery = more aggressive and disobedient.
Evaluation
+ Majority were in the normal range.
- Could be other reasons for aggression, e.g. temperament, disposition etc...
- Culture bias - US. Low population validity.
Aggression
Social Development
-----------------------------------------
EPPE
Procedure
• 3000 children from 141 pre schools including range of participants.
• Assessed children at 3 years and created intellectual and social profiles using standardised assessments, observations and reports from pre-school worker.
• Assessed again at primary school entry.
Findings
• Pre-school attendance improved cognitive development and aspects of social behaviour and peer relations.
• Disadvantaged children were more likely to have adverse social profiles at age 3 and school entry.
• Disadvantaged children did better with wide variety of children.
Evaluation
+ Large sample - high population validity - lots of different ethnicities.
- Social desirability bias in report methods.
Peer Relations
Peer Relations
Social Development
--------------------------------------------
Field
Procedure
• Examined amount of time spent in daycare and quality of daycare received.
Findings
• More time in daycare = more friends & extracurricular activities.
• High quality = more physical attraction during peer interactions.
Evaluation
+ Focuses on quality and quantity.
- Outdated.
- Correlational.
Peer Relations
Social Development
----------------------------------------------
DiLalla
Procedure
• Examined amount of time spent in daycare and its relation to pro-social behaviour.
Findings
• Negative correlation between amount of time children spend in daycare and amount of pro-social behaviour.
• More time in daycare = less cooperative and helpful peer relations.
Evaluation
- Correlational.
- Only focuses on time spent in daycare - limited.
Peer Relations
Aggression
Social Development
Daycare Influence
- 2 1/2 years are crucial for development.
- Children's wards in hospitals allow parents to stay with them or have a substitute emotional bond or something from home.
- Babies given up for adoption are taken as soon as possible so the baby can form attachments with the new family.
- Adoption must take place within the first 6 months.
- 'Sure Start' - making nurseries available for every 3 year old - government funded.
- EPPE project - nurseries must be high quality.
Peer Relations
Aggression
Social Development
-----------------------------------------------------
Daycare Influence
- 2 1/2 years are crucial for development.
- Children's wards in hospitals allow parents to stay with them or have a substitute emotional bond or something from home.
- Babies given up for adoption are taken as soon as possible so the baby can form attachments with the new family.
- Adoption must take place within the first 6 months.
- 'Sure Start' - making nurseries available for every 3 year old - government funded.
- EPPE project - nurseries must be high quality.
Disruption of Attachment - Institutionalisation
Institutionalisation - Institutional care refers to situations where children spend part of their childhood in a hospital, an orphanage or residential care.
Hodges & Tizard (1989)
Procedure
- Longitudinal natural study.
- 65 children placed in institution when less than 4 months old.
- Policy against caregivers forming attachments - children experienced early privation.
- At 4, 24 children were adopted & 15 had returned to natural homes. Rest remained in institute.
- Assessment at 8 and 16. Interviews with children, parents, teachers and peers.
- Data compared to a control group of 'normal' peers.
Findings
- Adopted children had close attachments to parents and family.
- Restored children did not have good family attachments.
- Adopted and restored children both struggled with peer relations and more likely to seek adult attention.
Evaluation
+ High ecological validity because the variables were naturally occurring.
+ Change in behaviours could be seen over a long period of time.
- Self-report methods cause social desirability bias.
- Low population validity because small sample size - even smaller when split into groups.
- No interference from the investigator over the variables - no control.
- Attrition.
Hodges & Tizard (1989)
Procedure
- Longitudinal natural study.
- 65 children placed in institution when less than 4 months old.
- Policy against caregivers forming attachments - children experienced early privation.
- At 4, 24 children were adopted & 15 had returned to natural homes. Rest remained in institute.
- Assessment at 8 and 16. Interviews with children, parents, teachers and peers.
- Data compared to a control group of 'normal' peers.
Findings
- Adopted children had close attachments to parents and family.
- Restored children did not have good family attachments.
- Adopted and restored children both struggled with peer relations and more likely to seek adult attention.
Evaluation
+ High ecological validity because the variables were naturally occurring.
+ Change in behaviours could be seen over a long period of time.
- Self-report methods cause social desirability bias.
- Low population validity because small sample size - even smaller when split into groups.
- No interference from the investigator over the variables - no control.
- Attrition.
-------------------------------------------
Rutter (2007)
Procedure
- 100 Romanian orphans assessed at 4, 6 and 11.
- Children spent early months in extreme emotional privation in Romania.
- Taken to UK to be adopted.
Findings
- Half of babies showed severe delays in psychological development compared to UK children their age.
- Babies adopted before 6 months showed normal emotional development.
- Orphans adopted after 6 months disinhibited attachments and problems with peers.
- Long-term consequences are less severe is children form attachments before 6 months.
Evaluation
+ Range of methods - more detailed.
+ High ecological validity because variables occur naturally.
- Low population validity due to babies only being Romanian and a small sample size.
- Participant attrition.
- Difficult to obtain information about quality of care in Romanian institutions.
Disruption of Attachment - Privation
Privation - A lack of attachment. Relatively small number of children experience privation. It could be the result of severe neglect and growing up in institutional care.
Genie (1977)
Events
• Found when she was 13 years old
• Kept strapped to a child's potty or a wire bed in an empty room
• Father punished her if she made a sound so she made virtually no noise
• Never achieved good social adjustment or language
• Moved from a lot of foster homes after found
The Czech Twins (1976)
Events
• Male identical twins - mother died giving birth
• Children went to a home for 11 months and then spent 6 months with their aunt
• Then went to father and step-mother
• Were not allowed out of the house and were kept in a closet or cellar
• Discovered at 7 years old, they could hardly walk
• Were placed in a hospital and then foster home
• Developed language quickly and now live as adults, well-adjusted and cognitively able
The reason for the different responses in the case studies may have been due to subsequent care or the Czech twins' company of each other opposed to Genie's isolation
Evaluation
+ High ecological validity because variables have occurred naturally
+ Produces qualitative data which is rich in detail
- Low population validity because it is only one individual or group
- Low reliability because the studies can't be replicated due to ethical issues
- Retrospective data - key points could be missed
Genie (1977)
Events
• Found when she was 13 years old
• Kept strapped to a child's potty or a wire bed in an empty room
• Father punished her if she made a sound so she made virtually no noise
• Never achieved good social adjustment or language
• Moved from a lot of foster homes after found
The Czech Twins (1976)
Events
• Male identical twins - mother died giving birth
• Children went to a home for 11 months and then spent 6 months with their aunt
• Then went to father and step-mother
• Were not allowed out of the house and were kept in a closet or cellar
• Discovered at 7 years old, they could hardly walk
• Were placed in a hospital and then foster home
• Developed language quickly and now live as adults, well-adjusted and cognitively able
The reason for the different responses in the case studies may have been due to subsequent care or the Czech twins' company of each other opposed to Genie's isolation
Evaluation
+ High ecological validity because variables have occurred naturally
+ Produces qualitative data which is rich in detail
- Low population validity because it is only one individual or group
- Low reliability because the studies can't be replicated due to ethical issues
- Retrospective data - key points could be missed
Disruption of Attachment - Deprivation Studies
Robertson & Robertson (1971)
Procedure
- Filmed children under the age of 3 during short separations
- One boy, John, spent 9 days in a residential nursery
- Staff couldn't attend his personal needs
- Other children filmed while Robertson cared for them
- They were visited by mothers in hospital and brought things from home for them
Findings
- John demonstrated PDD model, first clinging to a teddy
- Became withdrawn and despairing
- Rejected mother on reunion
- Had angry outbursts for months after
- Other children ate and slept well
- Welcomed parents at the end
- Maintained an emotional bond which kept the attachment in place
---------------------------------------------
Skeels and Dye (1939)
Procedure
- Compared one group of orphans raised in a home for women who were mentally disabled with control group.
- Control group remained in the original institution
Findings
- After 1 1/2 years the IQs of the control group fell from 87 to 61 points
- Group transferred to home IQs rose from 64 to 90 points
- Individuals assessed 20 years later and effects still apparent
-------------------------------------------------
Juvenile Thieves
Procedure
- 88 children (5-16 years) referred to Bowlby's clinic
- 44 children referred because of stealing
- 16 of the 44 identified as 'affectionless psychopaths'
- Remaining 44 hadn't committed any crimes and showed no antisocial behaviour. None of these were identified as afectionless psychopaths but were assessed as 'emotionally maladjusted'
- Interviewed children and families and created a record of early life experiences
Findings
- 86% of affection less psychopaths had experienced early and prolonged separation from mothers
- 17% of other thieves hadn't experienced separations
- 4% of non-thieves had experienced frequent early separations
Evaluation
- Social desirability bias - interviews
- Not a large enough sample - low population validity
- Not enough of each age considered - low population and ecological validity
- Only looked at one type of crime
- Investigator bias
- Errors of retrospective data
- Theft could have been due to other reasons - can't establish cause and effect
Disruption of Attachment - Deprivation
Separation - To be physically set apart from something. In terms of attachment, to be physically apart from the caregiver. There is often an interchangeable use of the words 'separation' and 'deprivation'.
Bowlby's PDD Model - Short & long term effects of separation
P - PROTEST: child cries and protests angrily
D -DESPAIR: appears calmer but still upset. Refuses attempts to be comforted
D -DETACHMENT: child engages with others. Likely to reject caregiver upon reunion
Long-term effects include:
1) separation anxiety
2) extreme clinginess
3) detachment
4) demanding of attachment figure
Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis
If an infant was unable to develop a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with his mother (or permanent mother substitute) then the child would have difficulty forming relationships with other people and may be at risk of behavioural disorders.
- Focus on continuous relationship
- Development must occur during critical period (2 1/2 years)
- Didn't suggest relationship must be with mother
Bowlby's PDD Model - Short & long term effects of separation
P - PROTEST: child cries and protests angrily
D -DESPAIR: appears calmer but still upset. Refuses attempts to be comforted
D -DETACHMENT: child engages with others. Likely to reject caregiver upon reunion
Long-term effects include:
1) separation anxiety
2) extreme clinginess
3) detachment
4) demanding of attachment figure
Bowlby's Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis
If an infant was unable to develop a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with his mother (or permanent mother substitute) then the child would have difficulty forming relationships with other people and may be at risk of behavioural disorders.
- Focus on continuous relationship
- Development must occur during critical period (2 1/2 years)
- Didn't suggest relationship must be with mother
Friday, 5 December 2014
Attachment - Studies
Harlow (1962)
Procedure
- Infant monkeys placed in a cage with two wire mesh cylinders, each with a face.
- One cylinder was bare and provided monkey with milk from a teat
- Second cylinder was covered with towelling.
- Monkeys were observed
Findings
- Monkeys uses towelled cylinder as a secure base and spent most time there.
- Towel mother did not provide sufficient love for psychological development.
- In later life, monkeys were abusive and had difficulty with mating and parenting.
Conclusion
- Contact comfort is preferable to food comfort, but not sufficient to healthy development.
Evaluation
+ Monkeys were used who share genes with humans and are humans closest animal relative.
+ Gives more insight into attachment theories
- Ethical Issues
- Results can't be generalised to humans
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
Procedure
- Two measures of attachment:
-> Stranger anxiety - if baby shows distress when approached by stranger
-> Separation anxiety - if baby shows distress when caregiver leaves
- Researchers looked at 60 babies from working class Glasgow
- Visited babies every month for a year and then at 18 months
- Used observations and interviews
- Interviewed mothers about babies' reposes to 7 situations:
1) Left in pram outside house
2) Put down after being held
3) Left in pram outside shops
4) Left in cot at night
5) Left with other people
6) Ignored when passed by
7) Left alone in a room
Findings
- Lots of infants formed attachments with people other than the caregiver doing the feeding.
- Quality of interaction was most important.
- Babies go through stages of development.
- 6-8 months: babies showed separation anxiety. Fear of strangers was a month later.
- Most babies formed multiple attachments.
Evaluation
+ Gave insight into the theory of monotropy.
- Interviews trigger social desirability bias
- Low population validity
- Observer bias
- Low ecological validity
- Outdated
- Low external validity
- Ethical issues
Procedure
- Infant monkeys placed in a cage with two wire mesh cylinders, each with a face.
- One cylinder was bare and provided monkey with milk from a teat
- Second cylinder was covered with towelling.
- Monkeys were observed
Findings
- Monkeys uses towelled cylinder as a secure base and spent most time there.
- Towel mother did not provide sufficient love for psychological development.
- In later life, monkeys were abusive and had difficulty with mating and parenting.
Conclusion
- Contact comfort is preferable to food comfort, but not sufficient to healthy development.
Evaluation
+ Monkeys were used who share genes with humans and are humans closest animal relative.
+ Gives more insight into attachment theories
- Ethical Issues
- Results can't be generalised to humans
------------------------------------------------
Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
Procedure
- Two measures of attachment:
-> Stranger anxiety - if baby shows distress when approached by stranger
-> Separation anxiety - if baby shows distress when caregiver leaves
- Researchers looked at 60 babies from working class Glasgow
- Visited babies every month for a year and then at 18 months
- Used observations and interviews
- Interviewed mothers about babies' reposes to 7 situations:
1) Left in pram outside house
2) Put down after being held
3) Left in pram outside shops
4) Left in cot at night
5) Left with other people
6) Ignored when passed by
7) Left alone in a room
Findings
- Lots of infants formed attachments with people other than the caregiver doing the feeding.
- Quality of interaction was most important.
- Babies go through stages of development.
- 6-8 months: babies showed separation anxiety. Fear of strangers was a month later.
- Most babies formed multiple attachments.
Evaluation
+ Gave insight into the theory of monotropy.
- Interviews trigger social desirability bias
- Low population validity
- Observer bias
- Low ecological validity
- Outdated
- Low external validity
- Ethical issues
---------------------------------------------
Lorenz (1935)
Procedure
- Divided goose eggs randomly into two groups.
- Half hatched naturally and others kept in incubator.
- Lorenz was first seen moving object of incubator group.
Findings
- Goslings formed attachment to him and followed him like he was their mother.
- Lorenz put all geese together and they separated into the two groups.
Evaluation
+ Supports the idea of a critical period
+ Developed imprinting idea
- Can't be generalised to humans
- Outdated
-----------------------------------------------
Longitudinal Study (1999)
Procedure
- Followed children from 12 months into adolescence.
- Rated by teachers, trained observers and camp counsellors.
Findings
- Children rated as securely attached later were more popular and were higher in social competence and self-esteem.
Evaluation
+ Longitudinal so studies behaviour over period of time
+ Supports Bowlby's continuity hypothesis
- Hawthorne effect
- Subjective - lacks reliability
- Observer reliability
----------------------------------------------
Zimmerman et al (2000)
Procedure
- Assessed attachments of 44 German children between 12-18 months.
- Reassessed at 16 years old with interviews
Findings
- Attachment type is not a good predictor of attachment in adolescence.
Evaluation
+ Evaluate behaviour over time
- Low population validity
- Social desirability bias
- Small sample size
- Low ecological validity
- Culture bias
- Attrition
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988)
Procedure
- Meta-analysis of 32 separate studies carried out in 8 countries
- Studied over 2000 babies
Findings
- Most common attachment was secure
- Lowest secure was China
- Top ambivalent were collectivist countries
- Highest avoidant was West Germany
Evaluation
+ Many countries uses - high population validity
+ The Strange Situation is controlled and has high internal validity
+ The Strange Situation is easily replicated therefore high reliability
- Westernised experiment - might not be effective in collectivist cultures
- Culture bias
- Social desirability bias - SS
- Only 5 individualistic countries used so results not representational - low population validity
- America's 'insecure' may not be insecure elsewhere
---------------------------------------------
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988)
Procedure
- Meta-analysis of 32 separate studies carried out in 8 countries
- Studied over 2000 babies
Findings
- Most common attachment was secure
- Lowest secure was China
- Top ambivalent were collectivist countries
- Highest avoidant was West Germany
Evaluation
+ Many countries uses - high population validity
+ The Strange Situation is controlled and has high internal validity
+ The Strange Situation is easily replicated therefore high reliability
- Westernised experiment - might not be effective in collectivist cultures
- Culture bias
- Social desirability bias - SS
- Only 5 individualistic countries used so results not representational - low population validity
- America's 'insecure' may not be insecure elsewhere
--------------------------------------------------
Takahashi (1990)
Procedure
- Strange Situation on 60 middle-class 1 year old infants in Japan. Included boys, girls and mothers. All were raised at home
Findings
- 68% securely attached
- 32% insecure-resistant
- No avoidant children
- The strange situation was not an appropriate method for studying attachment types in Japan
Evaluation
+ Demonstrated that not all cultures are the same in assessing attachment types and strange situation can't be used everywhere because of differences in child-rearing.
- Only in Japan, therefore low population validity
- There are cross-cultural variations so the procedure wasn't valid
- Protection from harm was an issue because infants were so distressed
- Low ecological validity
- Infants were so distressed that part of the experiment was ended early, reducing accuracy of results
Attachment - Cultural Differences
Research from different countries found that cultural differences affected attachment type.
China - Type A: 25% ; Type B: 50% ; Type C: 25%
Great Britain - Type A: 22.2% ; Type B: 75% ; Type C: 2.8%
Japan - Type A: 5.2% ; Type B: 67.7% ; Type C: 27.1%
Israel- Type A: 6.8% ; Type B: 64.4% ; Type C: 28.8%
Netherlands: Type A: 26.3% ; Type B: 67.3% ; Type C: 6.4%
Sweden: Type A: 21.6% ; Type B: 74.5% ; Type C: 3.9%
US: Type A: 22% ; Type B: 66% ; Type C: 12%
West Germany: Type A: 35.5% ; Type B: 56.6% ; Type C: 8.1%
China - Type A: 25% ; Type B: 50% ; Type C: 25%
Great Britain - Type A: 22.2% ; Type B: 75% ; Type C: 2.8%
Japan - Type A: 5.2% ; Type B: 67.7% ; Type C: 27.1%
Israel- Type A: 6.8% ; Type B: 64.4% ; Type C: 28.8%
Netherlands: Type A: 26.3% ; Type B: 67.3% ; Type C: 6.4%
Sweden: Type A: 21.6% ; Type B: 74.5% ; Type C: 3.9%
US: Type A: 22% ; Type B: 66% ; Type C: 12%
West Germany: Type A: 35.5% ; Type B: 56.6% ; Type C: 8.1%
Attachment - The Strange Situation
The Strange Situation was conducted by Ainsworth and Bell to determine attachment types in infants.
100 American middle-class infants and their mothers were used. Controlled observation was used to determine children's separation behaviour, reunion behaviour, willingness to explore and stranger anxiety.
Procedure
1) Mother and child are introduced to the room.
2) Mother and child are left alone to investigate the room.
3) A stranger enters the room and attempts to play with the child.
4) Mother leaves and the stranger interacts with the child.
5) Mother comes to comfort child.
6) Child is left alone.
7) Stranger returns and engages with child.
8) Mother returns and stranger leaves.
Three types of attachment were found.
Type A - Insecure- avoidant - Babies did not show distress on separation nor comfort on reunion. 22%
Type B - Secure - Babies were distressed on separation but comforted and happy upon reunion. 66%
Type C - Insecure-resistant - Babies were extremely distressed on separation but often rejected comfort on reunion and continued to be distressed.
Evaluation
+ Easy to replicate - makes the study reliable.
+ Efficient - it could measure a lot of behaviours quite quickly and bring in lots of participants.
- Ethical issues - distress
- Ecological validity - ethnocentric
- Population validity
- External Validity
100 American middle-class infants and their mothers were used. Controlled observation was used to determine children's separation behaviour, reunion behaviour, willingness to explore and stranger anxiety.
Procedure
1) Mother and child are introduced to the room.
2) Mother and child are left alone to investigate the room.
3) A stranger enters the room and attempts to play with the child.
4) Mother leaves and the stranger interacts with the child.
5) Mother comes to comfort child.
6) Child is left alone.
7) Stranger returns and engages with child.
8) Mother returns and stranger leaves.
Three types of attachment were found.
Type A - Insecure- avoidant - Babies did not show distress on separation nor comfort on reunion. 22%
Type B - Secure - Babies were distressed on separation but comforted and happy upon reunion. 66%
Type C - Insecure-resistant - Babies were extremely distressed on separation but often rejected comfort on reunion and continued to be distressed.
Evaluation
+ Easy to replicate - makes the study reliable.
+ Efficient - it could measure a lot of behaviours quite quickly and bring in lots of participants.
- Ethical issues - distress
- Ecological validity - ethnocentric
- Population validity
- External Validity
Attachment - Bowlby's Evolutionary Perspective
Bowlby believed attachments were necessary for survival and his evolutionary theory was comprised of these main components:
- Biological Process
- Innate/needed for survival
- Monotropy
- Social Releasers
- Continuity hypothesis
- Internal Working Model
- Critical period - up to 2 1/2 years
Evaluation
+ Lorenz's imprinting supports biological process and innate.
+ Genie supports critical period.
+ Harlow supports social releasers.
+ Longitudinal study supports internal working model.
+ Major theory of attachment.
+ Generated a lot of data.
+ Huge impact on emotional care of young children.
- Schaffer and Emerson opposes monotropy.
- Zimmerman opposes continuity hypothesis.
- Doesn't explain why some can cope with poor attachment.
- Assumption rather than proven.
- Limits role other family members have.
- Biological Process
- Innate/needed for survival
- Monotropy
- Social Releasers
- Continuity hypothesis
- Internal Working Model
- Critical period - up to 2 1/2 years
Evaluation
+ Lorenz's imprinting supports biological process and innate.
+ Genie supports critical period.
+ Harlow supports social releasers.
+ Longitudinal study supports internal working model.
+ Major theory of attachment.
+ Generated a lot of data.
+ Huge impact on emotional care of young children.
- Schaffer and Emerson opposes monotropy.
- Zimmerman opposes continuity hypothesis.
- Doesn't explain why some can cope with poor attachment.
- Assumption rather than proven.
- Limits role other family members have.
Attachment - The Learning Theory
The Learning Theory states we learn to attach by association. We associate stimuli with our automatic responses
The Learning Theory stages
1) Baby is fed by the mother.
2) Baby associates the pleasure of being fed to the mother.
3) The mother begins to stimulate pleasure even without food.
4) The baby feels happy when the mother is around and the attachment has begun.
Operant conditioning
Positive reinforcement = reward
Negative reinforcement = removing something negative
This is the drive reduction.
Food = primary reinforcer
Mother = secondary reinforcer
Evaluation
- Food may not be the main reinforcer, could be the responsiveness of the caregiver.
- Criticised for being reductionist.
- Ignores the evolutionary theory.
- Harlow's monkeys developed attachments to cloth mother over food.
- Schaffer and Emerson showed that infants formed attachments with people due to their sensitivity to the individual's needs.
+ Skinner's animals in cages supported operant conditioning when animals pressed lever for food.
The Learning Theory stages
1) Baby is fed by the mother.
2) Baby associates the pleasure of being fed to the mother.
3) The mother begins to stimulate pleasure even without food.
4) The baby feels happy when the mother is around and the attachment has begun.
Operant conditioning
Positive reinforcement = reward
Negative reinforcement = removing something negative
This is the drive reduction.
Food = primary reinforcer
Mother = secondary reinforcer
Evaluation
- Food may not be the main reinforcer, could be the responsiveness of the caregiver.
- Criticised for being reductionist.
- Ignores the evolutionary theory.
- Harlow's monkeys developed attachments to cloth mother over food.
- Schaffer and Emerson showed that infants formed attachments with people due to their sensitivity to the individual's needs.
+ Skinner's animals in cages supported operant conditioning when animals pressed lever for food.
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